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View ANSYS Mechanical APDL Fracture Analysis Guide.pdf from CIVIL ENGI 6707 at National University of Sciences & Technology, Islamabad. ANSYS Mechanical APDL Fracture Analysis Guide ANSYS. The 2D plane crack problems are solved by using complex potentials, which leads to SIE for the functions defined at the cracks and at the contours of the holes: Chau et al.

Detection of defects including cracks and spalls on wall surface in high-rise buildings is a crucial task of buildings’ maintenance. If left undetected and untreated, these defects can significantly affect the structural integrity and the aesthetic aspect of buildings. Timely and cost-effective methods of building condition survey are of practicing need for the building owners. Mechanics, the general form of the J-contour integral for a crack in the presence of tractions on the crack faces is given by,1 1 d cc2 J ik ik ij ij i juns. (1,2) (1)(2) (1)(2). I I II II 2 MKKKK E. At any location in the windshield above the three-inch line at the bottom (as measured from the junction of the dash board and the windshield) there is more than one crack from the same point if at least one of the cracks is more than 1-1/2 inches in length.

A welding defect is any flaw that compromises the usefulness of a weldment. There is a great variety of welding defects. Welding imperfections are classified according to ISO 6520[1] while their acceptable limits are specified in ISO 5817 [2] and ISO 10042.[3]

Major causes[edit]

According to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), causes of welding defects can be broken down as follows: 41 percent poor process conditions, 32 percent operator error, 12 percent wrong technique, 10 percent incorrect consumables, and 5 percent bad weld grooves.[4]

Hydrogen embrittlement[edit]

Residual stresses[edit]

The magnitude of stress that can be formed from welding can be roughly calculated using:[5]

EαΔT{displaystyle Ealpha Delta T}

Where E is Young's modulus, α is the coefficient of thermal expansion, and ΔT is the temperature change. For steel this calculates out to be approximately 3.5 GPa (510,000 psi).

Types[edit]

Cracks[edit]

Defects related to fracture.

Arc strikes[edit]

An Arc Strike is a discontinuity resulting from an arc, consisting of any localized remelted metal, heat affected metal, or change in the surface profile of any metal object. [6]Arc Strikes result in localized base metal heating and very rapid cooling. When located outside the intended weld area, they may result on hardening or localized cracking, and may serve as potential sites for initiating fracture. In Statically Loaded Structures, arc strikes need not be removed, unless such removal is required in contract documents. However, in Cyclically Loaded Structures, arc strikes may result in stress concentrations that would be detrimental to the serviceability of such structures and should be ground smooth and visually inspected for cracks. [7]

Cold cracking[edit]

Residual stresses can reduce the strength of the base material, and can lead to catastrophic failure through cold cracking. Cold cracking is limited to steels and is associated with the formation of martensite as the weld cools. The cracking occurs in the heat-affected zone of the base material. To reduce the amount of distortion and residual stresses, the amount of heat input should be limited, and the welding sequence used should not be from one end directly to the other, but rather in segments.[8]

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Cold cracking only occurs when all the following preconditions are met:[9]

  • susceptible microstructure (e.g.martensite)
  • hydrogen present in the microstructure (hydrogen embrittlement)
  • service temperature environment (normal atmospheric pressure): -100 to +100 °F
  • high restraint

Eliminating any one of these will eliminate this condition.

Crater crack[edit]

Crater cracks occur when a welding arc is broken, a crater will form if adequate molten metal is available to fill the arc cavity.[10]

Hat crack[edit]

Hat cracks get their name from the shape of the cross-section of the weld, because the weld flares out at the face of the weld. The crack starts at the fusion line and extends up through the weld. They are usually caused by too much voltage or not enough speed.[10]

Hot cracking[edit]

Hot cracking, also known as solidification cracking, can occur with all metals, and happens in the fusion zone of a weld. To diminish the probability of this type of cracking, excess material restraint should be avoided, and a proper filler material should be utilized.[8] Other causes include too high welding current, poor joint design that does not diffuse heat, impurities (such as sulfur and phosphorus), preheating, speed is too fast, and long arcs.[11]

Underbead crack[edit]

An underbead crack, also known as a heat-affected zone (HAZ) crack,[12] is a crack that forms a short distance away from the fusion line; it occurs in low alloy and high alloy steel. The exact causes of this type of crack are not completely understood, but it is known that dissolved hydrogen must be present. The other factor that affects this type of crack is internal stresses resulting from: unequal contraction between the base metal and the weld metal, restraint of the base metal, stresses from the formation of martensite, and stresses from the precipitation of hydrogen out of the metal.[13]

Longitudinal crack[edit]

Longitudinal cracks run along the length of a weld bead. There are three types: check cracks, root cracks, and full centerline cracks. Check cracks are visible from the surface and extend partially into the weld. They are usually caused by high shrinkage stresses, especially on final passes, or by a hot cracking mechanism. Root cracks start at the root and extent part way into the weld. They are the most common type of longitudinal crack because of the small size of the first weld bead. If this type of crack is not addressed then it will usually propagate into subsequent weld passes, which is how full cracks (a crack from the root to the surface) usually form.[10]

Reheat cracking[edit]

Reheat cracking is a type of cracking that occurs in HSLA steels, particularly chromium, molybdenum and vanadium steels, during postheating. The phenomenon has also been observed in austenitic stainless steels. It is caused by the poor creep ductility of the heat affected zone. Any existing defects or notches aggravate crack formation. Things that help prevent reheat cracking include heat treating first with a low temperature soak and then with a rapid heating to high temperatures, grinding or peening the weld toes, and using a two layer welding technique to refine the HAZ grain structure.[14][15]

Root and toe cracks[edit]

A root crack is the crack formed by the short bead at the root(of edge preparation) beginning of the welding, low current at the beginning and due to improper filler material used for welding. The major reason for these types of cracks is hydrogen embrittlement. These types of defects can be eliminated using high current at the starting and proper filler material. Toe crack occurs due to moisture content present in the welded area, it is a part of the surface crack so can be easily detected. Preheating and proper joint formation is a must for eliminating these types of defects.

Transverse crack[edit]

Transverse cracks are perpendicular to the direction of the weld. These are generally the result of longitudinal shrinkage stresses acting on weld metal of low ductility. Crater cracks occur in the crater when the welding arc is terminated prematurely. Crater cracks are normally shallow, hot cracks usually forming single or star cracks. These cracks usually start at a crater pipe and extend longitudinal in the crater. However, they may propagate into longitudinal weld cracks in the rest of the weld.

Distortion[edit]

Welding methods that involve the melting of metal at the site of the joint necessarily are prone to shrinkage as the heated metal cools. Shrinkage then introduces residual stresses and distortion. Distortion can pose a major problem, since the final product is not the desired shape. To alleviate certain types of distortion the workpieces can be offset so that after welding the product is the correct shape.[16] The following pictures describe various types of welding distortion:[17]

  • Transverse shrinkage

  • Angular distortion

  • Longitudinal shrinkage

  • Fillet distortion

  • Neutral axis distortion

Gas inclusion[edit]

Gas inclusions is a wide variety of defects that includes porosity, blow holes, and pipes (or wormholes). The underlying cause for gas inclusions is the entrapment of gas within the solidified weld. Gas formation can be from any of the following causes- high sulphur content in the workpiece or electrode, excessive moisture from the electrode or workpiece, too short of an arc, or wrong welding current or polarity.[12]

Inclusions[edit]

There are two types of inclusions: linear inclusions and rounded inclusions. Inclusions can be either isolated or cumulative. Linear inclusions occur when there is slag or flux in the weld. When marnie was there english download torrent. Slag forms from the use of a flux, which is why this type of defect usually occurs in welding processes that use flux, such as shielded metal arc welding, flux-cored arc welding, and submerged arc welding, but it can also occur in gas metal arc welding. This defect usually occurs in welds that require multiple passes and there is poor overlap between the welds. The poor overlap does not allow the slag from the previous weld to melt out and rise to the top of the new weld bead. It can also occur if the previous weld left an undercut or an uneven surface profile. To prevent slag inclusions the slag should be cleaned from the weld bead between passes via grinding, wire brushing, or chipping.[18]

Isolated inclusions occur when rust or mill scale is present on the base metal.[19]

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Lack of fusion and incomplete penetration[edit]

Lack of fusion is the poor adhesion of the weld bead to the base metal; incomplete penetration is a weld bead that does not start at the root of the weld groove. Incomplete penetration forms channels and crevices in the root of the weld which can cause serious issues in pipes because corrosive substances can settle in these areas. These types of defects occur when the welding procedures are not adhered to; possible causes include the current setting, arc length, electrode angle, and electrode manipulation.[20] Defects can be varied and classified as critical or non critical. Porosity (bubbles) in the weld are usually acceptable to a certain degree. Slag inclusions, undercut, and cracks are usually unacceptable. Some porosity, cracks, and slag inclusions are visible and may not need further inspection to require their removal. Small defects such as these can be verified by Liquid Penetrant Testing (Dye check). Slag inclusions and cracks just below the surface can be discovered by Magnetic Particle Inspection. Deeper defects can be detected using the Radiographic (X-rays) and/or Ultrasound (sound waves) testing techniques.

Lamellar tearing[edit]

Lamellar tearing is a type of welding defect that occurs in rolledsteel plates that have been welded together due to shrinkage forces perpendicular to the faces of the plates.[21] Since the 1970s, changes in manufacturing practices limiting the amount of sulfur used have greatly reduced the incidence of this problem.[22]

Lamellar tearing is caused mainly by sulfurousinclusions in the material. Other causes include an excess of hydrogen in the alloy. This defect can be mitigated by keeping the amount of sulfur in the steel alloy below 0.005%.[22] Adding rare earth elements, zirconium, or calcium to the alloy to control the configuration of sulfur inclusions throughout the metal lattice can also mitigate the problem.[23]

Modifying the construction process to use casted or forged parts in place of welded parts can eliminate this problem, as Lamellar tearing only occurs in welded parts.[21]

Undercut[edit]

Undercutting is when the weld reduces the cross-sectional thickness of the base metal and which reduces the strength of the weld and workpieces. One reason for this type of defect is excessive current, causing the edges of the joint to melt and drain into the weld; this leaves a drain-like impression along the length of the weld. Another reason is if a poor technique is used that does not deposit enough filler metal along the edges of the weld. A third reason is using an incorrect filler metal, because it will create greater temperature gradients between the center of the weld and the edges. Other causes include too small of an electrode angle, a dampened electrode, excessive arc length, and slow speed.[24]

References[edit]

  1. ^BS EN ISO 6520-1: 'Welding and allied processes — Classification of geometric imperfections in metallic materials — Part 1: Fusion welding'(2007)
  2. ^BS EN ISO 5817: 'Welding — Fusion-welded joints in steel, nickel, titanium and their alloys (beam welding excluded) — Quality levels for imperfections' (2007)
  3. ^BS EN ISO 10042: 'Welding. Arc-welded joints in aluminium and its alloys. Quality levels for imperfections' (2005)
  4. ^Matthews, Clifford (2001), ASME engineer's data book, ASME Press, p. 211, ISBN978-0-7918-0155-0.
  5. ^Bull, Steve (2000-03-16), Magnitude of stresses generated, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, archived from the original on 2009-12-06, retrieved 2009-12-06.
  6. ^AWS A3.0: 2020 - Standard Welding Terms and Definitions
  7. ^aisc.org/steel-solutions-center/engineering-faqs/8.5.-repairs
  8. ^ abCary & Helzer 2005, pp. 404–405.
  9. ^[1] A Brief MIG welder Troubleshooting Guide
  10. ^ abcRaj, Jayakumar & Thavasimuthu 2002, p. 128.
  11. ^Bull, Steve (2000-03-16), Factors promoting hot cracking, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, archived from the original on 2009-12-06, retrieved 2009-12-06.
  12. ^ abRaj, Jayakumar & Thavasimuthu 2002, p. 126.
  13. ^Rampaul 2003, p. 208.
  14. ^Bull, Steve (2000-03-16), Reheat cracking, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, archived from the original on 2009-12-07, retrieved 2009-12-06.
  15. ^Bull, Steve (2000-03-16), Reheat cracking, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, archived from the original on 2009-12-07, retrieved 2009-12-06.
  16. ^Weman 2003, pp. 7–8.
  17. ^Bull, Steve (2000-03-16), Welding Faults and Defects, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, archived from the original on 2009-12-06, retrieved 2009-12-06.
  18. ^Defects/imperfections in welds - slag inclusions, archived from the original on 2009-12-06, retrieved 2009-12-05.
  19. ^Bull, Steve (2000-03-16), Welding Faults and Defects, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, archived from the original on 2009-12-05.
  20. ^Rampaul 2003, p. 216.
  21. ^ abBull, Steve (2000-03-16), Welding Faults and Defects, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, archived from the original on 2009-12-04.
  22. ^ abStill, J. R., Understanding Hydrogen Failures, retrieved 2009-12-03.
  23. ^Ginzburg, Vladimir B.; Ballas, Robert (2000), Flat rolling fundamentals, CRC Press, p. 142, ISBN978-0-8247-8894-0.
  24. ^Rampaul 2003, pp. 211–212.

Bibliography[edit]

  • Cary, Howard B.; Helzer, Scott C. (2005), Modern Welding Technology, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, ISBN0-13-113029-3.
  • Raj, Baldev; Jayakumar, T.; Thavasimuthu, M. (2002), Practical non-destructive testing (2nd ed.), Woodhead Publishing, ISBN978-1-85573-600-9.
  • Rampaul, Hoobasar (2003), Pipe welding procedures (2nd ed.), Industrial Press, ISBN978-0-8311-3141-8.
  • Moreno, Preto (2013), Welding Defects (1st ed.), Aracne, ISBN978-88-548-5854-1.
  • Weman, Klas (2003), Welding processes handbook, New York, NY: CRC Press, ISBN0-8493-1773-8.

External links[edit]

Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Welding_defect&oldid=995030864'

19VAC30-70-210. Glass and glazing.

A. Motor vehicles may be inspected without windshields, side glasses, or any kind of glazing, except that any motor vehicle other than a motorcycle that was manufactured, assembled, or reconstructed after July 1, 1970, must be equipped with a windshield. If glass or other glazing is installed, it must be inspected. If no windshield is installed, see 19VAC30-70-50 C for location of the sticker.

B. Inspect for and reject if:

1. Any motor vehicle manufactured or assembled after January 1, 1936, or any bus, taxicab or school bus manufactured or assembled after January 1, 1935, is not equipped throughout with safety glass, or other safety glazing material. (This requirement includes slide-in campers used on pickups or trucks, caps, or covers used on pickup trucks, motor homes, and vans.)

2. Android 6.0.1 download for hp touchpad. Any safety glass or glazing used in a motor vehicle is not of an approved type and properly identified (refer to approved equipment section). (Replacement safety glass installed in any part of a vehicle other than the windshield need not bear a trademark or name, provided the glass consists of two or more sheets of glass separated by a glazing material, and provided the glass is cut from a piece of approved safety glass, and provided the edge of the glass can be observed.)

NOTE: A number of 1998 and 1999 model year Ford Contour/Mystique, Econoline and Ranger vehicles were produced without the AS-1 windshield marking as required by FMVSS #205. Ford has certified that these vehicles' windshields meet all performance standards and will not be rejected.

3. Any glass at any location where glass is used is cracked or broken so that it is likely to cut or injure a person in the vehicle.

4. Windshield has any cloudiness more than three inches above the bottom, one inch inward from the outer borders, one inch down from the top, or one inch inward from the center strip. The bottom of the windshield shall be defined as the point where the top of the dash contacts the windshield.

5. Any distortion or obstruction that interferes with a driver's vision; any alteration that has been made to a vehicle that obstructs the driver's clear view through the windshield.

a. Any hood scoop installed on any motor vehicle manufactured for the year 1990 or earlier model year cannot exceed 2-1/4 inches high at its highest point measured from the junction of the dashboard and the windshield.

b. Any hood scoop installed on any motor vehicle manufactured for the 1991 or subsequent model year cannot exceed 1-1/8 inches high at its highest point measured from the junction of the dashboard and the windshield.

NOTE: Vehicles up to 10,000 pounds (GVWR) submitted for inspection, with a navigational device, video event recording device, or a crash avoidance camera mounted on the interior of the windshield; when the entire device is outside the area swept by the windshield wipers or any location above the AS-1 line, shall be issued an approval sticker if no other violations are detected.

6. Windshield glass, on the driver's side, has any scratch more than 1/4 inch in width and six inches long within the area covered by the windshield wiper blade, excluding the three inches above the bottom of the windshield. A windshield wiper that remains parked within the driver's side windshield wiper area shall be rejected.

EXCEPTION: Do not reject safety grooves designed to clean wiper blades if the grooves do not extend upward from the bottom of the windshield more than six inches at the highest point.

7. There is a pit, chip, or star crack larger than 1-1/2 inches in diameter at any location in the windshield above the three-inch line at the bottom.

8. At any location in the windshield above the three-inch line at the bottom (as measured from the junction of the dash board and the windshield) there is more than one crack from the same point if at least one of the cracks is more than 1-1/2 inches in length. There is any crack that weakens the windshield so that one piece may be moved in relation to the other. (If there is more than one crack running from a star crack that extends above the three-inch line, the windshield shall be rejected.)

NOTE: Windshield repair is a viable option to windshield replacement. However, the primary focus of windshield repairs is to stop or reduce further damage from roadway adversities, vibrations, ambient temperature changes, and weather. Repairs to minor damage may be made so long as the windshield meets all of the standards set forth in this section.

9. Any sticker is on the windshield other than an official one required by law or permitted by the superintendent. Authorization is hereby granted for stickers or decals, to include those required by any county, town, or city, measuring not more than 2-1/2 inches in width and four inches in length to be placed in the blind spot behind the rear view mirror. The normal location for any required county, town, or city sticker is adjacent to the right side of the official inspection sticker when viewed from inside the vehicle. The top edge of the sticker is to be approximately four inches from the bottom of the windshield. The left side edge adjacent to the official inspection sticker shall not be more than 1/4 inch from the right edge of the official inspection sticker when viewed from inside the vehicle. Valid Commercial Vehicle Safety Alliance (CVSA) inspection decals or similar commercial vehicle inspection decal issued by local law enforcement may be placed at the bottom right corner of the windshield when viewed from inside the vehicle. The top edge of such decals are to be approximately four inches from the bottom of the windshield when viewed from inside the vehicle and are to be located outside the area swept by the windshield wipers.

Any sticker or decal required by the laws of any other state or the District of Columbia and displayed upon the windshield of a vehicle submitted for inspection in this state is permitted by the superintendent, provided the vehicle is currently registered in that jurisdiction, and the sticker is displayed in a manner designated by the issuing authority and has not expired. This includes vehicles with dual registration; (i.e., Virginia and the District of Columbia).

NOTE: Toll transponder devices may be affixed to the inside center of the windshield at the roof line just above the rear view mirror. If space does not allow, then the transponder device may be affixed to the immediate right of the mirror at the roof line.

NOTE: A licensed motor vehicle dealer may apply one transponder sticker no larger than one inch by four inches and one barcode sticker no larger than three inches by four inches to the driver's side edge of a vehicle's windshield to be removed upon the sale or lease of the vehicle provided that it does not extend below the AS-1 line. In the absence of an AS-1 line the sticker cannot extend more than three inches downward from the top of the windshield.

NOTE: Any vehicle displaying an expired sticker or decal on its windshield at the time of inspection, excluding a rejection sticker, shall not be issued an approval sticker unless the owner or operator authorizes its removal. A rejection sticker will be issued versus an involuntary removal.

10. Sunshading material words, lettering, numbers or pictures on the windshield that extend below the AS-1 line or three inches downward from the top of the windshield in the absence of an AS-1 line. Sunshading is permitted on the windshield if authorized by the Virginia Department of Motor Vehicles and indicated on the vehicle registration.

NOTE: Vehicles with permitted sunshading on the windshield must have a cut-out to accommodate the direct application of an approval or rejection sticker to the windshield in the location indicated in 19VAC30-70-50 C or 19VAC30-70-60 E.

NOTE: Vehicles with logos made into the glass at the factory meet federal standards and will pass state inspection.

11. Any sunscreening material is scratched, distorted, wrinkled or obscures or distorts clear vision through the glazing.

12. Front side windows have cloudiness above three inches from the bottom of the glass or other defects that affect the driver's vision or one or more cracks that permit one part of the glass to be moved in relation to another part. Wind silencers, breezes or other ventilator adaptors are not made of clear transparent material.

EXCEPTION: Colored or tinted ventvisors that do not exceed more than two inches from the forward door post into the driver's viewing area are permitted.

13. Glass in the left front door cannot be lowered so a hand signal can be given. (This does not apply to vehicles that were not designed or manufactured for the left front glass to be lowered, provided the vehicle is equipped with approved turn signals.) If either front door has the glass removed and material inserted in place of the glass that could obstruct the driver's vision.

EXCEPTION: Sunscreening material is permissible if the vehicle is equipped with a mirror on each side.

14. Any sticker or other obstruction is on either front side window, rear side windows, or rear windows. (The price label, fuel economy label and the buyer's guide required by federal statute and regulations to be affixed to new or used vehicles by the manufacturer shall normally be affixed to one of the rear side windows.) If a vehicle only has two door windows, the labels may be affixed to one of these windows. If a vehicle does not have any door or side windows the labels may be temporarily affixed to the right side of the windshield until the vehicle is sold to the first purchaser.

NOTE: A single sticker no larger than 20 square inches in area, if such sticker is totally contained within the lower five inches of the glass in the rear window if a vehicle has only one outside mirror, a single sticker or decal no larger than 10 square inches located in an area not more than three inches above the bottom and not more than eight inches from the rearmost edge of either front side window, is permissible and should not be rejected.

A single sticker issued by the Department of Transportation to identify a physically challenged driver, no larger than two inches by two inches, located not more than one inch to the rear of the front door post, or one inch to the rear of the front ventilator glass, if equipped with a ventilator glass and no higher than one inch from the bottom of the window opening, is permitted on the front driver's side window on a vehicle specially equipped for the physically challenged.

15. Rear window is clouded or distorted so that the driver does not have a view 200 feet to the rear.

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EXCEPTIONS: The following are permissible if the vehicle is equipped with a mirror on each side:

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a. There is attached to one rear window of such motor vehicle one optically grooved clear plastic right angle rear view lens, not exceeding 18 inches in diameter in the case of a circular lens or not exceeding 11 inches by 14 inches in the case of a rectangular lens, which enables the operator of the motor vehicle to view below the line of sight as viewed through the rear window.

b. There is affixed to the rear side windows, rear window, or windows of such motor vehicle any sticker or stickers, regardless of size.

c. There is affixed to the rear side windows, rear window, or windows of such motor vehicle a single layer of sunshading material.

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d. Rear side windows, rear window, or windows is clouded or distorted.

Statutory Authority

§ 46.2-1165 of the Code of Virginia.

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Historical Notes

Derived from VR545-01-07 § 21, eff. May 1, 1990; amended, Volume 10, Issue 08, eff. February 9, 1994; Volume 21, Issue 04, eff. September 22, 2004; Volume 21, Issue 18, eff. April 15, 2005; Volume 24, Issue 08, eff. March 1, 2008; Volume 28, Issue 24, eff. August 1, 2012; Volume 32, Issue 24, eff. October 3, 2016; Volume 34, Issue 09, eff. January 26, 2018; Volume 35, Issue 01, eff. October 4, 2018; Volume 35, Issue 25, eff. September 1, 2019.

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